Article Analysis 2 For this analysis, you will read an assigned article as before. Here is a link to the article. Download Here is a link to the article. Please download it so that you can locate the page numbers when asked to do so in the assignment. You will complete a structured handout as before. Here is a link to the handout Download Here is a link to the handout. Please enter your answers on the handout, save and upload when you are done. The assignment asks you to consider an important issue for all types of empirical studies, and that is the issue of generalizability. One advantage of quantitative studies that use large, randomly drawn samples is that the sample is representative of the larger population from which it is drawn. Qualitative studies do not usually have this advantage. Here is a short, easy to read comparison of quantitative and qualitative methods–be sure to read how McLeod explains the issue of transferable or generalizable findings. simplypsychology.org-QualitativevsQuantitative.pdf Download simplypsychology.org-QualitativevsQuantitative.pdf
Be sure to read the instructions very carefully and ask questions in advance if there is something you do not understand. The assigned article is short, but you should give yourself time to read it and think about the differences between qualitative research and quantitative research. What’s the difference between qualitative and
quantitative research?
By Saul McLeod, updated 2019
There exists a fundamental distinction between two types of data:
Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and
qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but
not measured, such as language.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers
(Punch, 1998, p. 4).
https://www.simplypsychology.org/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/saul-mcleod.html
Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic
approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in
their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms
of the meanings people bring to them.
— Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)
An interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some
psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as the
behaviourists (e.g., Skinner).
Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an
appropriate way of carrying out research, since it fails to capture the totality of human
experience and the essence of what it is to be human. Exploring the experience of
participants is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism).
The aim of qualitative research is to understand the social reality of individuals, groups and
cultures as nearly as possible as its participants feel it or live it. Thus, people and groups, are
studied in their natural setting.
Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’
a particular phenomenon, or behaviour, operates as it does in a particular context.
Methods (used to obtain qualitative data)
Qualitative researchers use a variety of methods to develop deep understandings of how
people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social
world.
For example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, documents, participant
observation, and ethnography.
The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from
the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and
cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience.
— Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)
https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/questionnaires.html#open
https://www.simplypsychology.org/observation.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/observation.html
A good example of a qualitative research method would be unstructured interviews which
generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to
talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher develop a real sense
of a person’s understanding of a situation.
Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs,
videos, sound recordings and so on, can be considered qualitative data.
Data Analysis
Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave
the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.
Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make
sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967),
thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) or discourse analysis.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/interviews.html#unstructured
https://student.cc.uoc.gr/uploadFiles/192-%CE%A3%CE%A0%CE%95%CE%9D407/CONTENT%20ANALYSIS.pdf
http://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/9780335244492.pdf
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Using_Thematic_Analysis_in_Psychology.pdf
Key Features
Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a
qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The
contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken
for granted.
Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide
their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an
interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data, without the active participation
of the researcher, no data exists.
The design of the study evolves during the research, and can be adjusted or changed as it
progresses.
For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality, it is subjective and exist only in
reference to the observer.
Theory is data driven, and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the
data as they are collected.
Limitations
Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples
from large-scale data sets.
The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective
nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional
standards of reliability and validity.
For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it
is not possible to replicate qualitative studies. Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions,
and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor can generalizations be made to a
wider context than the one studied with any confidence
The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation are lengthy. Analysis of
qualitative data is difficult and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to try to interpret
qualitative data, and great care must be taken when doing so, for example, if looking for
symptoms of mental illness.
Strengths
Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field.
This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and
complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible relationships,
causes, effects and dynamic processes.
Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which are a reflection
of social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular
benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports in order to examine
forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.
QuantitativeResearch
Quantitative research gathers data in a numerical form which can be put into categories,
or in rank order, or measured in units of measurement. This type of data can be used to
construct graphs and tables of raw data.
Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behaviour and phenonomon across
different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject
it.
Methods (used to obtain quantitative data)
Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.
However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires can
produce both quantitative information.
For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate
quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into
categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).
Experimental methods limit the possible ways in which a research participant can react to
and express appropriate social behaviour.
Findings are therefore likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions
which the researcher brings to the investigation.
Data Analysis
Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision
making. We can use statistics to summarise our data, describing patterns, relationships, and
connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.
Descriptive statistics help us to summarise our data whereas inferential statistics are used to
identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and
control groups in a randomised control study).
https://www.simplypsychology.org/experimental-method.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/questionnaires.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/likert-scale.html
Key Features
Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies
in the lab.
The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias), and is separated from the data.
The design of the study is determined before it begins.
For the quantitative researcher reality is objective and exist separately to the researcher,
and is capable of being seen by anyone.
Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.
Limitations
Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do
not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions may have for
those participants (Carr, 1994).
Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may
negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small
scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data
(Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider
populations.
Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on
theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.
Strengths
Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since
statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as
scientifically objective, and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data
analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others
because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
Hypotheses can also be tested because of the used of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).
APA Style References
Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS. Sage.
Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated
approach to research design, measurement and statistics. Sage.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research
in Psychology, 3, 77–101.
Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research:
what method for nursing?. Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4), 716-721.
Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw
Hill.
Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA,
US: Sage Publications Inc.
Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory;
strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4), 364.
Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.
Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitatie and Qualitative
Approaches. London: Sage
Further Information
Research Data
http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/11735/2/thematic_analysis_revised…
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a87b/ce9f2d5fe771005a2890c92da2cff8a03b32.pdf
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Quantitative%20vs%20Qualitative.pdf
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Quantitative%20vs%20Qualitative.pdf
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Qualitative.pdf
How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2019, July 30). Qualitative vs. quantitative research. Simply psychology:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html
Designing qualitative research
Methods of data collection and analysis
Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
Content Analysis
Grounded Theory
Thematic Analysis
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Qualitative.pdf
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Qualitative.pdf
http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/resource/view.php?id=52658
http://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/resource/view.php?id=52658
https://www.open.ac.uk/blogs/CALRG/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/intro-qual-quant.pptx
https://www.open.ac.uk/blogs/CALRG/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/intro-qual-quant.pptx
https://student.cc.uoc.gr/uploadFiles/192-%CE%A3%CE%A0%CE%95%CE%9D407/CONTENT%20ANALYSIS.pdf
https://student.cc.uoc.gr/uploadFiles/192-%CE%A3%CE%A0%CE%95%CE%9D407/CONTENT%20ANALYSIS.pdf
http://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/9780335244492.pdf
http://www.mheducation.co.uk/openup/chapters/9780335244492.pdf
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Using_Thematic_Analysis_in_Psychology.pdf
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Using_Thematic_Analysis_in_Psychology.pdf
